How are instrumentation amplifiers constructed on the semiconductor level?












3












$begingroup$


I'm curious as to exactly how in-amps are designed at a transistor level. They're often shown as being made of three op amps, but due to how specifically the amplifiers are being used I expect that there may be some differences between them, to optimize performance for certain things, and some things (the reference side of current mirrors, perhaps) might be shared between them.



I strongly doubt that they just copy the same op amp design three times and add resistors.



So, to sum it up into a question: How are instrumentation amplifiers designed, at a transistor level? How are the three component amplifiers specialized for their limited tasks, and what, if any, circuitry is shared between them?










share|improve this question









$endgroup$

















    3












    $begingroup$


    I'm curious as to exactly how in-amps are designed at a transistor level. They're often shown as being made of three op amps, but due to how specifically the amplifiers are being used I expect that there may be some differences between them, to optimize performance for certain things, and some things (the reference side of current mirrors, perhaps) might be shared between them.



    I strongly doubt that they just copy the same op amp design three times and add resistors.



    So, to sum it up into a question: How are instrumentation amplifiers designed, at a transistor level? How are the three component amplifiers specialized for their limited tasks, and what, if any, circuitry is shared between them?










    share|improve this question









    $endgroup$















      3












      3








      3


      2



      $begingroup$


      I'm curious as to exactly how in-amps are designed at a transistor level. They're often shown as being made of three op amps, but due to how specifically the amplifiers are being used I expect that there may be some differences between them, to optimize performance for certain things, and some things (the reference side of current mirrors, perhaps) might be shared between them.



      I strongly doubt that they just copy the same op amp design three times and add resistors.



      So, to sum it up into a question: How are instrumentation amplifiers designed, at a transistor level? How are the three component amplifiers specialized for their limited tasks, and what, if any, circuitry is shared between them?










      share|improve this question









      $endgroup$




      I'm curious as to exactly how in-amps are designed at a transistor level. They're often shown as being made of three op amps, but due to how specifically the amplifiers are being used I expect that there may be some differences between them, to optimize performance for certain things, and some things (the reference side of current mirrors, perhaps) might be shared between them.



      I strongly doubt that they just copy the same op amp design three times and add resistors.



      So, to sum it up into a question: How are instrumentation amplifiers designed, at a transistor level? How are the three component amplifiers specialized for their limited tasks, and what, if any, circuitry is shared between them?







      operational-amplifier circuit-design instrumentation-amplifier






      share|improve this question













      share|improve this question











      share|improve this question




      share|improve this question










      asked 10 hours ago









      HearthHearth

      4,2901036




      4,2901036






















          2 Answers
          2






          active

          oldest

          votes


















          4












          $begingroup$

          From the top of my head:



          There's basically a few things you'd want to have from a "perfect" amplifier, but which are hard to realize within a single one:




          • High Common-Mode rejection ratio (CMRR)

          • High Input Impedance

          • Low Output Impedance

          • High Gain

          • Low Noise figure

          • Low Output bias


          In a three-Opamp differential amplifier (and I'd assume that things like the INA128 actually are made of three opamps!), the input impedance of the output opamp doesn't really matter – so you can use something with a lower input impedance, but with a high output drive strength. In fact, I'd speculate that it might even make sense to use BJTs for the input stage differential amplifier of that third opamp – you'd be sinking exactly what need, and:



          That third opamp would ideally have a high CMRR – and it's, I've been told[citation needed] a bit easier to use laser-trimmed on-die resistors to make this thing a little more symmetrical if these resistors are lower value due to more current flowing through them.



          So, wild guess: Third opamp input differential stage: BJTs, rest FET, with a relatively fat FET pair at the output.



          The two input Opamps wouldn't need as much CMRR (in fact, none, as long as they react identically), but a high input impedance – an ideal use case for FET inputs.



          Friis' noise formula tells us that these two mostly define the noise figure of the overall circuit, so it's at least likely the stages after the input stage are also BJTs. A significant amount of the overall voltage gain might happen here (for exactly Friis' noise formula reasons).



          I mentioned laser-trimmed resistors: Since you need to really get the resistors in an instrumentation amplifier right, the streaks of weakly doped silicon that make up resistors on ICs are in this case designed to be "zappable" with a laser during production – meaning they can be adjusted after / while being measured by calibrated equipment.



          Because I can:



          The three opamps for which I could find die shots (which I'm not competent to interpret:




          • Analog Devices AMP01

          • National Semi (now TI) INA2332

          • NatSemi INA116






          share|improve this answer











          $endgroup$













          • $begingroup$
            I'd assume it may be possible to skip the output current gain stage on the input amplifiers, no? Even a BJT-input op amp doesn't need that much bias current.
            $endgroup$
            – Hearth
            9 hours ago






          • 1




            $begingroup$
            Also, some in-amps have a sort of "isolation-amp-lite" feature in that they allow you to set a DC bias on the output (particularly useful for high-side current sensing, for example); is this specialization only something that goes into the output op amp, or do the input ones need to be modified to make this work, or... Honestly, this should maybe be its own question entirely.
            $endgroup$
            – Hearth
            9 hours ago










          • $begingroup$
            I'm not competent enough to interpret those die shots either, but they sure do look fascinating.
            $endgroup$
            – Hearth
            8 hours ago



















          2












          $begingroup$

          Regardless of the IC, be it digital or analog, there are a quite a few simplifications that can be made because:




          • The internal nodes don’t have to drive pads.


          Driving a pad requires a minimum load of ~2pF and a few nH. while internal nodes can be a few tens of fF. While internally you can get away with a few pA (in some cases even fA), externally you rarely go below a few mA. Driving any pad always requires comparatively massive transistors.




          • Internal circuitry is fixed, and thus well-defined.


          A pad can connect to nearly anything. The designer has to consider a wide spectrum of possibilities. That is not the case for internal circuitry.



          While “true” op amps require 3 stages to achieve very high gain and very low output impedance, depending on the application it’s possible to design amplifiers with only one stage. The output impedance only has to be low enough for the internal loads, and the gain high enough to satisfy a design objective. It’s rather common to have internal integrated amplifiers with gains of 1000 or less, and output impedances of 10kohm or more.






          share|improve this answer









          $endgroup$













            Your Answer





            StackExchange.ifUsing("editor", function () {
            return StackExchange.using("mathjaxEditing", function () {
            StackExchange.MarkdownEditor.creationCallbacks.add(function (editor, postfix) {
            StackExchange.mathjaxEditing.prepareWmdForMathJax(editor, postfix, [["\$", "\$"]]);
            });
            });
            }, "mathjax-editing");

            StackExchange.ifUsing("editor", function () {
            return StackExchange.using("schematics", function () {
            StackExchange.schematics.init();
            });
            }, "cicuitlab");

            StackExchange.ready(function() {
            var channelOptions = {
            tags: "".split(" "),
            id: "135"
            };
            initTagRenderer("".split(" "), "".split(" "), channelOptions);

            StackExchange.using("externalEditor", function() {
            // Have to fire editor after snippets, if snippets enabled
            if (StackExchange.settings.snippets.snippetsEnabled) {
            StackExchange.using("snippets", function() {
            createEditor();
            });
            }
            else {
            createEditor();
            }
            });

            function createEditor() {
            StackExchange.prepareEditor({
            heartbeatType: 'answer',
            autoActivateHeartbeat: false,
            convertImagesToLinks: false,
            noModals: true,
            showLowRepImageUploadWarning: true,
            reputationToPostImages: null,
            bindNavPrevention: true,
            postfix: "",
            imageUploader: {
            brandingHtml: "Powered by u003ca class="icon-imgur-white" href="https://imgur.com/"u003eu003c/au003e",
            contentPolicyHtml: "User contributions licensed under u003ca href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/"u003ecc by-sa 3.0 with attribution requiredu003c/au003e u003ca href="https://stackoverflow.com/legal/content-policy"u003e(content policy)u003c/au003e",
            allowUrls: true
            },
            onDemand: true,
            discardSelector: ".discard-answer"
            ,immediatelyShowMarkdownHelp:true
            });


            }
            });














            draft saved

            draft discarded


















            StackExchange.ready(
            function () {
            StackExchange.openid.initPostLogin('.new-post-login', 'https%3a%2f%2felectronics.stackexchange.com%2fquestions%2f426753%2fhow-are-instrumentation-amplifiers-constructed-on-the-semiconductor-level%23new-answer', 'question_page');
            }
            );

            Post as a guest















            Required, but never shown

























            2 Answers
            2






            active

            oldest

            votes








            2 Answers
            2






            active

            oldest

            votes









            active

            oldest

            votes






            active

            oldest

            votes









            4












            $begingroup$

            From the top of my head:



            There's basically a few things you'd want to have from a "perfect" amplifier, but which are hard to realize within a single one:




            • High Common-Mode rejection ratio (CMRR)

            • High Input Impedance

            • Low Output Impedance

            • High Gain

            • Low Noise figure

            • Low Output bias


            In a three-Opamp differential amplifier (and I'd assume that things like the INA128 actually are made of three opamps!), the input impedance of the output opamp doesn't really matter – so you can use something with a lower input impedance, but with a high output drive strength. In fact, I'd speculate that it might even make sense to use BJTs for the input stage differential amplifier of that third opamp – you'd be sinking exactly what need, and:



            That third opamp would ideally have a high CMRR – and it's, I've been told[citation needed] a bit easier to use laser-trimmed on-die resistors to make this thing a little more symmetrical if these resistors are lower value due to more current flowing through them.



            So, wild guess: Third opamp input differential stage: BJTs, rest FET, with a relatively fat FET pair at the output.



            The two input Opamps wouldn't need as much CMRR (in fact, none, as long as they react identically), but a high input impedance – an ideal use case for FET inputs.



            Friis' noise formula tells us that these two mostly define the noise figure of the overall circuit, so it's at least likely the stages after the input stage are also BJTs. A significant amount of the overall voltage gain might happen here (for exactly Friis' noise formula reasons).



            I mentioned laser-trimmed resistors: Since you need to really get the resistors in an instrumentation amplifier right, the streaks of weakly doped silicon that make up resistors on ICs are in this case designed to be "zappable" with a laser during production – meaning they can be adjusted after / while being measured by calibrated equipment.



            Because I can:



            The three opamps for which I could find die shots (which I'm not competent to interpret:




            • Analog Devices AMP01

            • National Semi (now TI) INA2332

            • NatSemi INA116






            share|improve this answer











            $endgroup$













            • $begingroup$
              I'd assume it may be possible to skip the output current gain stage on the input amplifiers, no? Even a BJT-input op amp doesn't need that much bias current.
              $endgroup$
              – Hearth
              9 hours ago






            • 1




              $begingroup$
              Also, some in-amps have a sort of "isolation-amp-lite" feature in that they allow you to set a DC bias on the output (particularly useful for high-side current sensing, for example); is this specialization only something that goes into the output op amp, or do the input ones need to be modified to make this work, or... Honestly, this should maybe be its own question entirely.
              $endgroup$
              – Hearth
              9 hours ago










            • $begingroup$
              I'm not competent enough to interpret those die shots either, but they sure do look fascinating.
              $endgroup$
              – Hearth
              8 hours ago
















            4












            $begingroup$

            From the top of my head:



            There's basically a few things you'd want to have from a "perfect" amplifier, but which are hard to realize within a single one:




            • High Common-Mode rejection ratio (CMRR)

            • High Input Impedance

            • Low Output Impedance

            • High Gain

            • Low Noise figure

            • Low Output bias


            In a three-Opamp differential amplifier (and I'd assume that things like the INA128 actually are made of three opamps!), the input impedance of the output opamp doesn't really matter – so you can use something with a lower input impedance, but with a high output drive strength. In fact, I'd speculate that it might even make sense to use BJTs for the input stage differential amplifier of that third opamp – you'd be sinking exactly what need, and:



            That third opamp would ideally have a high CMRR – and it's, I've been told[citation needed] a bit easier to use laser-trimmed on-die resistors to make this thing a little more symmetrical if these resistors are lower value due to more current flowing through them.



            So, wild guess: Third opamp input differential stage: BJTs, rest FET, with a relatively fat FET pair at the output.



            The two input Opamps wouldn't need as much CMRR (in fact, none, as long as they react identically), but a high input impedance – an ideal use case for FET inputs.



            Friis' noise formula tells us that these two mostly define the noise figure of the overall circuit, so it's at least likely the stages after the input stage are also BJTs. A significant amount of the overall voltage gain might happen here (for exactly Friis' noise formula reasons).



            I mentioned laser-trimmed resistors: Since you need to really get the resistors in an instrumentation amplifier right, the streaks of weakly doped silicon that make up resistors on ICs are in this case designed to be "zappable" with a laser during production – meaning they can be adjusted after / while being measured by calibrated equipment.



            Because I can:



            The three opamps for which I could find die shots (which I'm not competent to interpret:




            • Analog Devices AMP01

            • National Semi (now TI) INA2332

            • NatSemi INA116






            share|improve this answer











            $endgroup$













            • $begingroup$
              I'd assume it may be possible to skip the output current gain stage on the input amplifiers, no? Even a BJT-input op amp doesn't need that much bias current.
              $endgroup$
              – Hearth
              9 hours ago






            • 1




              $begingroup$
              Also, some in-amps have a sort of "isolation-amp-lite" feature in that they allow you to set a DC bias on the output (particularly useful for high-side current sensing, for example); is this specialization only something that goes into the output op amp, or do the input ones need to be modified to make this work, or... Honestly, this should maybe be its own question entirely.
              $endgroup$
              – Hearth
              9 hours ago










            • $begingroup$
              I'm not competent enough to interpret those die shots either, but they sure do look fascinating.
              $endgroup$
              – Hearth
              8 hours ago














            4












            4








            4





            $begingroup$

            From the top of my head:



            There's basically a few things you'd want to have from a "perfect" amplifier, but which are hard to realize within a single one:




            • High Common-Mode rejection ratio (CMRR)

            • High Input Impedance

            • Low Output Impedance

            • High Gain

            • Low Noise figure

            • Low Output bias


            In a three-Opamp differential amplifier (and I'd assume that things like the INA128 actually are made of three opamps!), the input impedance of the output opamp doesn't really matter – so you can use something with a lower input impedance, but with a high output drive strength. In fact, I'd speculate that it might even make sense to use BJTs for the input stage differential amplifier of that third opamp – you'd be sinking exactly what need, and:



            That third opamp would ideally have a high CMRR – and it's, I've been told[citation needed] a bit easier to use laser-trimmed on-die resistors to make this thing a little more symmetrical if these resistors are lower value due to more current flowing through them.



            So, wild guess: Third opamp input differential stage: BJTs, rest FET, with a relatively fat FET pair at the output.



            The two input Opamps wouldn't need as much CMRR (in fact, none, as long as they react identically), but a high input impedance – an ideal use case for FET inputs.



            Friis' noise formula tells us that these two mostly define the noise figure of the overall circuit, so it's at least likely the stages after the input stage are also BJTs. A significant amount of the overall voltage gain might happen here (for exactly Friis' noise formula reasons).



            I mentioned laser-trimmed resistors: Since you need to really get the resistors in an instrumentation amplifier right, the streaks of weakly doped silicon that make up resistors on ICs are in this case designed to be "zappable" with a laser during production – meaning they can be adjusted after / while being measured by calibrated equipment.



            Because I can:



            The three opamps for which I could find die shots (which I'm not competent to interpret:




            • Analog Devices AMP01

            • National Semi (now TI) INA2332

            • NatSemi INA116






            share|improve this answer











            $endgroup$



            From the top of my head:



            There's basically a few things you'd want to have from a "perfect" amplifier, but which are hard to realize within a single one:




            • High Common-Mode rejection ratio (CMRR)

            • High Input Impedance

            • Low Output Impedance

            • High Gain

            • Low Noise figure

            • Low Output bias


            In a three-Opamp differential amplifier (and I'd assume that things like the INA128 actually are made of three opamps!), the input impedance of the output opamp doesn't really matter – so you can use something with a lower input impedance, but with a high output drive strength. In fact, I'd speculate that it might even make sense to use BJTs for the input stage differential amplifier of that third opamp – you'd be sinking exactly what need, and:



            That third opamp would ideally have a high CMRR – and it's, I've been told[citation needed] a bit easier to use laser-trimmed on-die resistors to make this thing a little more symmetrical if these resistors are lower value due to more current flowing through them.



            So, wild guess: Third opamp input differential stage: BJTs, rest FET, with a relatively fat FET pair at the output.



            The two input Opamps wouldn't need as much CMRR (in fact, none, as long as they react identically), but a high input impedance – an ideal use case for FET inputs.



            Friis' noise formula tells us that these two mostly define the noise figure of the overall circuit, so it's at least likely the stages after the input stage are also BJTs. A significant amount of the overall voltage gain might happen here (for exactly Friis' noise formula reasons).



            I mentioned laser-trimmed resistors: Since you need to really get the resistors in an instrumentation amplifier right, the streaks of weakly doped silicon that make up resistors on ICs are in this case designed to be "zappable" with a laser during production – meaning they can be adjusted after / while being measured by calibrated equipment.



            Because I can:



            The three opamps for which I could find die shots (which I'm not competent to interpret:




            • Analog Devices AMP01

            • National Semi (now TI) INA2332

            • NatSemi INA116







            share|improve this answer














            share|improve this answer



            share|improve this answer








            edited 9 hours ago

























            answered 9 hours ago









            Marcus MüllerMarcus Müller

            34.8k362101




            34.8k362101












            • $begingroup$
              I'd assume it may be possible to skip the output current gain stage on the input amplifiers, no? Even a BJT-input op amp doesn't need that much bias current.
              $endgroup$
              – Hearth
              9 hours ago






            • 1




              $begingroup$
              Also, some in-amps have a sort of "isolation-amp-lite" feature in that they allow you to set a DC bias on the output (particularly useful for high-side current sensing, for example); is this specialization only something that goes into the output op amp, or do the input ones need to be modified to make this work, or... Honestly, this should maybe be its own question entirely.
              $endgroup$
              – Hearth
              9 hours ago










            • $begingroup$
              I'm not competent enough to interpret those die shots either, but they sure do look fascinating.
              $endgroup$
              – Hearth
              8 hours ago


















            • $begingroup$
              I'd assume it may be possible to skip the output current gain stage on the input amplifiers, no? Even a BJT-input op amp doesn't need that much bias current.
              $endgroup$
              – Hearth
              9 hours ago






            • 1




              $begingroup$
              Also, some in-amps have a sort of "isolation-amp-lite" feature in that they allow you to set a DC bias on the output (particularly useful for high-side current sensing, for example); is this specialization only something that goes into the output op amp, or do the input ones need to be modified to make this work, or... Honestly, this should maybe be its own question entirely.
              $endgroup$
              – Hearth
              9 hours ago










            • $begingroup$
              I'm not competent enough to interpret those die shots either, but they sure do look fascinating.
              $endgroup$
              – Hearth
              8 hours ago
















            $begingroup$
            I'd assume it may be possible to skip the output current gain stage on the input amplifiers, no? Even a BJT-input op amp doesn't need that much bias current.
            $endgroup$
            – Hearth
            9 hours ago




            $begingroup$
            I'd assume it may be possible to skip the output current gain stage on the input amplifiers, no? Even a BJT-input op amp doesn't need that much bias current.
            $endgroup$
            – Hearth
            9 hours ago




            1




            1




            $begingroup$
            Also, some in-amps have a sort of "isolation-amp-lite" feature in that they allow you to set a DC bias on the output (particularly useful for high-side current sensing, for example); is this specialization only something that goes into the output op amp, or do the input ones need to be modified to make this work, or... Honestly, this should maybe be its own question entirely.
            $endgroup$
            – Hearth
            9 hours ago




            $begingroup$
            Also, some in-amps have a sort of "isolation-amp-lite" feature in that they allow you to set a DC bias on the output (particularly useful for high-side current sensing, for example); is this specialization only something that goes into the output op amp, or do the input ones need to be modified to make this work, or... Honestly, this should maybe be its own question entirely.
            $endgroup$
            – Hearth
            9 hours ago












            $begingroup$
            I'm not competent enough to interpret those die shots either, but they sure do look fascinating.
            $endgroup$
            – Hearth
            8 hours ago




            $begingroup$
            I'm not competent enough to interpret those die shots either, but they sure do look fascinating.
            $endgroup$
            – Hearth
            8 hours ago













            2












            $begingroup$

            Regardless of the IC, be it digital or analog, there are a quite a few simplifications that can be made because:




            • The internal nodes don’t have to drive pads.


            Driving a pad requires a minimum load of ~2pF and a few nH. while internal nodes can be a few tens of fF. While internally you can get away with a few pA (in some cases even fA), externally you rarely go below a few mA. Driving any pad always requires comparatively massive transistors.




            • Internal circuitry is fixed, and thus well-defined.


            A pad can connect to nearly anything. The designer has to consider a wide spectrum of possibilities. That is not the case for internal circuitry.



            While “true” op amps require 3 stages to achieve very high gain and very low output impedance, depending on the application it’s possible to design amplifiers with only one stage. The output impedance only has to be low enough for the internal loads, and the gain high enough to satisfy a design objective. It’s rather common to have internal integrated amplifiers with gains of 1000 or less, and output impedances of 10kohm or more.






            share|improve this answer









            $endgroup$


















              2












              $begingroup$

              Regardless of the IC, be it digital or analog, there are a quite a few simplifications that can be made because:




              • The internal nodes don’t have to drive pads.


              Driving a pad requires a minimum load of ~2pF and a few nH. while internal nodes can be a few tens of fF. While internally you can get away with a few pA (in some cases even fA), externally you rarely go below a few mA. Driving any pad always requires comparatively massive transistors.




              • Internal circuitry is fixed, and thus well-defined.


              A pad can connect to nearly anything. The designer has to consider a wide spectrum of possibilities. That is not the case for internal circuitry.



              While “true” op amps require 3 stages to achieve very high gain and very low output impedance, depending on the application it’s possible to design amplifiers with only one stage. The output impedance only has to be low enough for the internal loads, and the gain high enough to satisfy a design objective. It’s rather common to have internal integrated amplifiers with gains of 1000 or less, and output impedances of 10kohm or more.






              share|improve this answer









              $endgroup$
















                2












                2








                2





                $begingroup$

                Regardless of the IC, be it digital or analog, there are a quite a few simplifications that can be made because:




                • The internal nodes don’t have to drive pads.


                Driving a pad requires a minimum load of ~2pF and a few nH. while internal nodes can be a few tens of fF. While internally you can get away with a few pA (in some cases even fA), externally you rarely go below a few mA. Driving any pad always requires comparatively massive transistors.




                • Internal circuitry is fixed, and thus well-defined.


                A pad can connect to nearly anything. The designer has to consider a wide spectrum of possibilities. That is not the case for internal circuitry.



                While “true” op amps require 3 stages to achieve very high gain and very low output impedance, depending on the application it’s possible to design amplifiers with only one stage. The output impedance only has to be low enough for the internal loads, and the gain high enough to satisfy a design objective. It’s rather common to have internal integrated amplifiers with gains of 1000 or less, and output impedances of 10kohm or more.






                share|improve this answer









                $endgroup$



                Regardless of the IC, be it digital or analog, there are a quite a few simplifications that can be made because:




                • The internal nodes don’t have to drive pads.


                Driving a pad requires a minimum load of ~2pF and a few nH. while internal nodes can be a few tens of fF. While internally you can get away with a few pA (in some cases even fA), externally you rarely go below a few mA. Driving any pad always requires comparatively massive transistors.




                • Internal circuitry is fixed, and thus well-defined.


                A pad can connect to nearly anything. The designer has to consider a wide spectrum of possibilities. That is not the case for internal circuitry.



                While “true” op amps require 3 stages to achieve very high gain and very low output impedance, depending on the application it’s possible to design amplifiers with only one stage. The output impedance only has to be low enough for the internal loads, and the gain high enough to satisfy a design objective. It’s rather common to have internal integrated amplifiers with gains of 1000 or less, and output impedances of 10kohm or more.







                share|improve this answer












                share|improve this answer



                share|improve this answer










                answered 3 hours ago









                Edgar BrownEdgar Brown

                6,0282734




                6,0282734






























                    draft saved

                    draft discarded




















































                    Thanks for contributing an answer to Electrical Engineering Stack Exchange!


                    • Please be sure to answer the question. Provide details and share your research!

                    But avoid



                    • Asking for help, clarification, or responding to other answers.

                    • Making statements based on opinion; back them up with references or personal experience.


                    Use MathJax to format equations. MathJax reference.


                    To learn more, see our tips on writing great answers.




                    draft saved


                    draft discarded














                    StackExchange.ready(
                    function () {
                    StackExchange.openid.initPostLogin('.new-post-login', 'https%3a%2f%2felectronics.stackexchange.com%2fquestions%2f426753%2fhow-are-instrumentation-amplifiers-constructed-on-the-semiconductor-level%23new-answer', 'question_page');
                    }
                    );

                    Post as a guest















                    Required, but never shown





















































                    Required, but never shown














                    Required, but never shown












                    Required, but never shown







                    Required, but never shown

































                    Required, but never shown














                    Required, but never shown












                    Required, but never shown







                    Required, but never shown







                    Popular posts from this blog

                    數位音樂下載

                    When can things happen in Etherscan, such as the picture below?

                    格利澤436b